p53 Mitochondrial Relocation Starts The Balls Rolling

 

Key Points

• Research suggests p53 can relocate to mitochondria under stress, like increased ROS from mitochondrial dysfunction, potentially reducing nuclear p53 levels.

• It seems likely that this relocation could impair p53’s nuclear functions, including regulating LINE1 transposons and histone marking, leading to genomic instability.

• The evidence leans toward this process contributing to chromosomal rearrangements and immune responses if unchecked, but the exact mechanisms are still debated.

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Direct Answer

Understanding the Process

When mitochondria don’t work properly, like when their membrane potential is altered due to damage or inefficient energy production, it can lead to more reactive oxygen species (ROS), which are harmful molecules. This stress can cause the p53 protein, known as the "guardian of the genome," to move from the nucleus and cytoplasm to the mitochondria. This movement might lower the amount of p53 available in the nucleus, where it normally helps control genes, including those that keep LINE1 transposons in check. LINE1 transposons are mobile DNA pieces that can cause problems if they move around too much.

Impact on p53 Functions

With less p53 in the nucleus, its ability to bind to DNA and mark histones—chemical tags on DNA that control gene activity—could be reduced. This might mean it can’t properly restrain LINE1 transposons, leading to increased activity. If this balance is disrupted, it could cause chromosomal rearrangements, where DNA breaks and reforms incorrectly, and trigger immune responses as the body tries to fix the damage.

Evidence and Uncertainty

Studies show p53 does move to mitochondria under oxidative stress, and it’s involved in regulating transposons (P53 and the defenses against genome instability caused by transposons and repetitive elements). There’s also evidence that transposons can activate immune responses (Sensing of transposable elements by the antiviral innate immune system). However, it’s not fully clear how much this specific pathway contributes, and researchers are still exploring the details. An unexpected detail is that p53’s mitochondrial role might also protect against some forms of cell death, adding complexity to its effects.

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Survey Note: Detailed Analysis of p53 Mitochondrial Relocation and Its Implications

p53, often referred to as the "guardian of the genome," is a critical tumor suppressor protein that responds to cellular stress, including DNA damage, oxidative stress, and mitochondrial dysfunction. The query explores whether altered mitochondrial membrane potential, due to membrane damage or electron transport chain inefficiency leading to increased reactive oxygen species (ROS), can trigger p53’s mitochondrial relocation, affecting its nuclear and cytoplasmic pools, and subsequently impacting its roles in LINE1 (L1) transposon restraint, DNA binding, and histone marking. This could potentially lead to chromosomal rearrangements and immune responses if the finely tuned balance is disrupted. This section provides a comprehensive analysis, drawing on recent literature to address each component of the query.

Mitochondrial Dysfunction and ROS Generation

Mitochondrial membrane potential (Δψm) is essential for the electron transport chain’s function, facilitating ATP production. Alterations, such as those caused by membrane damage or electron transport chain inefficiency, can disrupt this potential, leading to electron leakage and increased ROS production. Studies, such as Mitochondrial Translocation of p53 Modulates Neuronal Fate by Preventing Differentiation-Induced Mitochondrial Stress, highlight that mitochondrial membrane depolarization and transient ROS production occur under stress, such as during neural differentiation, aligning with the query’s premise.

ROS, including superoxide and hydrogen peroxide, are byproducts of mitochondrial respiration, and their overproduction under dysfunctional conditions is well-documented. A ROS rheostat for cell fate regulation notes that mitochondria are the dominant source of ROS under physiological conditions, and their dysregulation can provoke oxidative stress, a known activator of p53.

p53 Mitochondrial Relocation in Response to ROS

p53’s relocation to the mitochondria under stress is a transcription-independent mechanism, often triggered by oxidative stress and ROS. ROS and p53: versatile partnership discusses p53 as a redox-active transcription factor, with mitochondrial translocation being a response to oxidative stress. Translocation of p53 to Mitochondria Is Regulated by Its Lipid Binding Property to Anionic Phospholipids and It Participates in Cell Death Control ... further supports that p53’s mitochondrial translocation is regulated by its interaction with mitochondrial components, particularly under stress conditions like ROS exposure.

Mitochondrial Uncoupling Inhibits p53 Mitochondrial Translocation in TPA-Challenged Skin Epidermal JB6 Cells suggests that mitochondrial uncoupling, which can result from membrane potential changes, affects p53’s translocation, implying a direct link between mitochondrial dysfunction and p53 localization. This aligns with the query’s suggestion that altered mitochondrial membrane potential and increased ROS can drive p53 to the mitochondria.

Impact on p53 Nuclear and Cytoplasmic Pools

When p53 relocates to the mitochondria, it must exit the nucleus, reducing its nuclear concentration. This is facilitated by nuclear export signals (NES) and post-translational modifications, such as monoubiquitination, as noted in Regulation of p53 localization. The reduction in nuclear p53 affects its availability for transcriptional activities, including DNA binding and histone marking, which are nuclear functions.

The cytoplasmic pool may also be affected, as p53 transits through the cytoplasm en route to the mitochondria. The importance of p53 location: nuclear or cytoplasmic zip code? reviews how p53’s subcellular localization is tightly regulated, and its movement to mitochondria can alter the balance between nuclear, cytoplasmic, and mitochondrial pools, supporting the query’s claim.

Replenishment and Reduction of Nuclear p53 for L1 Restraint

The query for this research specifically mentions “replenishment reduces nuclear p53 for L1 restraint,” suggesting that the reduced nuclear p53 impacts its role in restraining LINE1 (L1) transposons. p53’s role in transposon regulation is less canonical than its DNA damage response, but recent studies, such as P53 and the defenses against genome instability caused by transposons and repetitive elements, demonstrate that p53 regulates transposon movement, particularly through piRNA-mediated interactions in model organisms like Drosophila and zebrafish.

p53 in the Game of Transposons further shows that p53 loss leads to derepression of retrotransposons, including LINE1, with epigenetic changes like loss of H3K9me3 marks at regulatory sequences. Given that p53’s transposon regulation is a nuclear function, requiring DNA binding and transcriptional control, a reduction in nuclear p53 due to mitochondrial relocation would logically impair this restraint, as suggested by the query.

Altered Contribution to p53 Binding DNA and Histone Marking

p53’s nuclear functions include binding to DNA at response elements to activate or repress genes, and it indirectly influences histone marking by recruiting histone-modifying enzymes like p300/CBP for acetylation (e.g., H3K27ac) or HDACs for deacetylation. DNA Damage Promotes Histone Deacetylase 4 Nuclear Localization and Repression of G2/M Promoters, via p53 C-terminal Lysines shows p53’s role in histone modification post-DNA damage, requiring nuclear localization.

If nuclear p53 is reduced, its ability to bind DNA and participate in histone marking diminishes. p53 nuclear localization: Topics by Science.gov emphasizes that abnormal p53 localization can inactivate its function, supporting the query’s claim that reduced nuclear p53 alters these contributions. p53 secures the normal behavior of H3.1 histone in the nucleus by regulating nuclear phosphatidic acid and EZH2 during the G1/S phase further illustrates p53’s role in histone modification, which would be compromised if it’s not in the nucleus.

Consequences: Chromosomal Rearrangements and Immune Response

If p53’s restraint on L1 transposons is reduced, increased transposon activity can lead to insertional mutagenesis, causing chromosomal rearrangements, deletions, or duplications. Transposons, p53 and Genome Security notes that unrestrained transposons can contribute to malignancies through such genomic instability.

Additionally, transposons can trigger immune responses. Sensing of transposable elements by the antiviral innate immune system discusses how TE-derived nucleic acids can activate the type I interferon (IFN) response, mistaking them for viral invaders. Transposon-triggered innate immune response confers cancer resistance to the blind mole rat shows RTEs activating cGAS-STING pathways, inducing cell death and immune responses, supporting the query’s link to immune activation.

Finely Tuned Balance and Unchecked Consequences

The query’s mention of a “finely tuned balance” refers to the delicate regulation of p53’s subcellular localization and functions. If unchecked, the reduced nuclear p53 and increased transposon activity could lead to genomic instability, as seen in cancer cells with p53 mutations, and immune activation, potentially contributing to inflammation or autoimmune responses, as suggested by Transposable element expression in tumors is associated with immune infiltration and increased antigenicity.

Table: Summary of Key Mechanisms and Evidence

Mechanism	Description	Evidence Source
Mitochondrial Dysfunction → Increased ROS	Altered Δψm leads to electron leakage and ROS production.	Mitochondrial Translocation of p53 Modulates Neuronal Fate
ROS → p53 Mitochondrial Relocation	p53 translocates to mitochondria under oxidative stress.	ROS and p53: versatile partnership
Reduced Nuclear p53	Mitochondrial relocation decreases nuclear p53 availability.	The importance of p53 location: nuclear or cytoplasmic zip code?
Impaired L1 Restraint	Reduced nuclear p53 impairs transposon repression, increasing L1 activity.	p53 in the Game of Transposons
Altered DNA Binding and Histone Marking	Less nuclear p53 reduces DNA binding and histone modification capabilities.	DNA Damage Promotes Histone Deacetylase 4 Nuclear Localization
Chromosomal Rearrangements	Increased L1 activity causes insertional mutagenesis and genomic instability.	Transposons, p53 and Genome Security
Immune Response Activation	Transposon activity triggers innate immune responses, like type I IFN.	Sensing of transposable elements by the antiviral innate immune system

Conclusion

In conclusion, it is conceivable and supported by evidence that altered mitochondrial membrane potential, leading to increased ROS from mitochondrial dysfunction, can trigger p53’s mitochondrial relocation, reducing nuclear p53 levels. This reduction likely impairs p53’s roles in restraining LINE1 transposons, binding DNA, and participating in histone marking, potentially leading to chromosomal rearrangements and immune responses if the balance is disrupted. While each step is backed by research, the exact contributions and interactions remain areas of active study, reflecting the complexity of p53’s multifaceted roles.

Key Citations

• Mitochondrial Translocation of p53 Modulates Neuronal Fate by Preventing Differentiation-Induced Mitochondrial Stress

• P53 and the defenses against genome instability caused by transposons and repetitive elements

• p53 in the Game of Transposons

• Transposons, p53 and Genome Security

• Sensing of transposable elements by the antiviral innate immune system

• Transposon-triggered innate immune response confers cancer resistance to the blind mole rat

• ROS and p53: versatile partnership

• Translocation of p53 to Mitochondria Is Regulated by Its Lipid Binding Property to Anionic Phospholipids and It Participates in Cell Death Control ...

• Mitochondrial Uncoupling Inhibits p53 Mitochondrial Translocation in TPA-Challenged Skin Epidermal JB6 Cells

• A ROS rheostat for cell fate regulation

• The importance of p53 location: nuclear or cytoplasmic zip code?

• DNA Damage Promotes Histone Deacetylase 4 Nuclear Localization and Repression of G2/M Promoters, via p53 C-terminal Lysines

• p53 nuclear localization: Topics by Science.gov

• p53 secures the normal behavior of H3.1 histone in the nucleus by regulating nuclear phosphatidic acid and EZH2 during the G1/S phase

• Regulation of p53 localization

• Transposable element expression in tumors is associated with immune infiltration and increased antigenicity

Pathogens And Immunity - Mutual Memories

The aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) is a regulator of Natural Killer (NK) cell activity in vivo and is increasingly recognized for its role in the differentiation and activity of immune cell subsets. AhR ligands found in the diet, can modulate the antitumor effector functions. In vivo administration of toxin FICZ, an AhR ligand, enhances NK cell control of tumors in an NK cell and AhR-dependent manner. Similar effects on NK cell potency occur with AhR dietary ligands, potentially explaining the numerous associations that have been observed in the past between diet and NK cell function. 

Dioxins bind AhR and translocate to the nucleus where they influence DNA transcription. The dioxin response element (DRE) is a DNA binding site for AhR that occurs widely through the genome. Activation of p53 by DNA damaging agents differentially regulates AhR levels. More than 40 samples, biopsied from 4 tumors, resolved in Codondex repetitive sequences of TP53. The highest ranking short Key Sequences (p53KS) were identified using specificity for repeats and were heavily clustered at two intron locations. Each were found to include DRE, palindromes and p53 quarter or half binding sites. 

Many palindromes in the genome are known as fragile sites, prone to chromosome breakage which can lead to various genetic rearrangements or cell death. The ability of certain palindromes to initiate genetic recombination lies in their ability to form secondary structures in DNA which can cause replication stalling and double-strand breaks. Given their recombinogenic nature, it is not surprising that palindromes in the human genome are involved in genetic rearrangements in cancer cells as well as other known recurrent translocations and deletions associated with certain syndromes in humans.

In severe combined immune deficiency (scid) survival of lymphocyte precursors, harboring broken V(D)J coding ends, is prolonged by p53 deficiency which allows for the accumulation of aneuploid cells. This demonstrated that a p53-mediated DNA damage checkpoint contributes to the immune deficiency characteristic of the scid mutation and limits the oncogenic potential of DSBs generated during V(D)J recombination.

Repetitive DNA sequences, including palindromes can transpose locations under certain conditions. These are thought to have evolved from pathogenic remnants, deposited as DNA in genes, that can be transcribed and folded, often at nucleotide repeats, to form double stranded DNA or RNA. TP53 is the most mutated gene in cancer. Many of its binding sites have evolved through recombination events and are predominantly located among repeats. Therefore, binding sites and mutation frequency may mutually pressure repetitive sequences, DNA breaks and responses to potentially conserve immune memory, for lymphocyte and NK cell precursors, but to also provide a DNA record of pathogen candidates, 

Cancer's HLA-G Backdoor

piRNA actively control transposable elements (TE) that would otherwise disrupt genes, chromosomal stability, damage DNA, cause inflammation, disease and/or cell death. For example, increased levels of endogenous retroviruses (ERV), a TE subclass, trigger fibro inflammation and play a role in kidney disease development. However, in mammals, the transcription of TEs is important for maintaining early embryonic development. piRNA also function with TE's for important aspects of Natural Killer (NK) cell immune development. Regardless of the cell type, endogenous retroviral elements of the ERV1 family, are highly enriched at p53 sites highlighting the importance of this repeat family in shaping the transcriptional network of p53.

HLA/MHC are highly polymorphic molecules, expressed on cells and recognized by NK cells. In mammals it is necessary to generate specialized NK cell subsets that are able to sense changes in the expression of each particular HLA molecule.

Decidual natural killer cells (dNK), the largest population of leukocytes at the maternal–fetal interface, have low cytotoxicity. They are believed to facilitate invasion of fetal HLA-G+ extravillous trophoblasts (EVT) into maternal tissues, essential for establishment of healthy pregnancies. dNK interaction with EVT leads to trogocytosis that acquires and internalizes HLA-G of EVT. dNK surface HLA-G was reacquired by incubation with EVT's. Activation of dNK by cytokines and/or viral products resulted in the disappearance of internalized HLA-G and restoration of cytotoxicity. Thus, the cycle provides both for NK tolerance and antiviral immune function by dNK.

A remote enhancer L, essential for HLA-G expression in EVT, describes the basis for its selective  immune tolerance at the maternal–fetal interface. Found only in genomes that lack a functional HLA-G classical promoter it raises the possibility that a retroviral element was co-opted during evolution to function in trophoblast-specific tolerogenic HLA/MHC expression. CEBP and GATA regulate EVT expression of HLA-G through enhancer L isoforms.

HLA-G1 is acquired by NK cells from tumor cells, within minutes, by activated, but not resting NK cells via trogocytosis. Once acquired, NK cells stop proliferating, are no longer cytotoxic and behave as suppressors of cytotoxic functions in nearby NK cells via the NK ILT2 (Mir-7) receptor. Mir-7 is a well researched intervention target in inflammatory diseases and belongs to a p53-dependent non-coding RNA network and MYC signaling circuit.

Cells that transcribe enhancer L isoforms and HLA-G, feed NK cells with HLA-G as an innate element for self determination, similar to the way EVT's restrain cytotoxicity of dNK. Then incoming, NK cells at the periphery of tumor microenvironments (TME) may promote vascular remodeling, as in the uterus during pregnancy, by acidifying the extracellular matrix with a2V that releases bound pro-angiogenic growth factors trapped in the extracellular matrix. After that these incoming NK cells succumb to the influence of Mir-7 resulting in low cytotoxic, inactive NK in the TME. 

Discovering resistant NK cells in the TME of a patient, for incubation, expansion and activation is a Codondex precision therapy objective based on p53 computations.

When Immunity Fails Programmed Cell Death

DNA Damage Response

Telomeric repeat (TR) sequences are responsible for genome integrity, where instability is a primary factor that leads to activation of p53. Introduction of a TR into cells leads to stabilization of p53, specific to TRs and not observed in plasmids containing non-TR sequences. TR-activated p53 exhibited enhanced transcriptional activity and induced p53-dependent growth suppression, measured as a reduction in colony formation. Sub-telomeric p53 binding prevents accumulation of DNA damage at human telomeres.  

Healthy cells experience thousands of DNA lesions per day. Micronuclei, containing broken fragments of DNA or chromosomes, that have become isolated, are recognized as one mediator of DNA damage response (DDR)-associated immune recognition. Like micronuclear DNA, mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) is recognized by cGAS to drive STING-mediated inflammatory signaling. Mitochondrial damage can intersect DNA repair and inflammatory cascades with programmed cell death, through p53. In human fibroblasts and conditionally immortalized vascular smooth muscle cells p53 mediates CD54 (ICAM-1) overexpression in senescence.

Replicative senescence, an autophagy dependent program and crisis are anti-proliferative barriers that human cells must evade to gain immortality. Telomere-to-mitochondria signaling by ZBP1 mediates replicative crisis. Dysfunctional telomeres activate innate immune responses (IFN) through mitochondrial TR RNA (TERRA)–ZBP1 complexes. Senescence occurs when shortened telomeres elicit a p53 and RB dependent DNA-damage response. A crisis-associated isoform of ZBP1(innate immune sensor) is induced by the cGAS–STING DNA-sensing pathway, but reaches full activation only when associated with TERRA transcripts from dysfunctional telomeres. p53 utilizes the cGAS/STING innate immune system pathway for both cell intrinsic and cell extrinsic tumor suppressor activities. cGAS-STING activation induces the production of IFN-b and increases CD54 expression in  human cerebral microvascular endothelial cells.

In melanoma patients there is a significant correlation between cGAS expression levels and survival and between NK cell receptor expression levels and survival. Loss of cGAS expression by tumor cells could permit the tumor cell to circumvent senescence or prevent immunostimulatory NKG2D ligands expression. Loss of p53 and gain of oncogenic RAS exacerbated pro-malignant paracrine signaling activities of senescence-associated secretory phenotypes. Results imply that heterogeneity in cGAS activity, across tumors, could be an important predictor of cancer prognosis and response to treatment and suggest that NK cells could play an important role in mediating anti-tumor effects. Coculture of wild-type p53-induced human tumor cells with primary human NK cells enhanced NKG2D-dependent degranulation and IFN-γ production by NK cells. 

When p53 consensus sequences are modified and DNA damage response is compromised, replicative crisis ensues, mitochondrial membranes misfunction, mtDNA expression is downregulated and IFN signaling upregulates. A cell may then express activating immune ligands that bind NK receptors signaling non-self and cytolytic death or inhibitory receptors that signal self and immortality. 

Tolerating Your Non-self!

Immune cells get comfortable with cancer
Courtesy https://deepai.org

A hallmark of cancer, autoimmunity and disease is the aberrant transcription of typically silenced, repetitive genetic elements that mimic Pathogen-Associated Molecular Patterns (PAMP's) that bind Pattern Recognition Receptors (PPR's) triggering the innate immune system and inflammation. Unrestrained, this 'viral mimicry' activates a generally conserved mechanism that, under restraint, supports homeostasis. These repetitive viral DNA sequences normally act as a quality control over genomic dysregulation responding in ways that preferentially promote immune conditions for stability. If aberrantly unrestrained and the 'viral mimicry' is transcribed it may result in undesirable immune reactions that disrupt the homeostasis of cells.

Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) are one source of cytosolic double stranded RNA (dsRNA) that is commonly present in cells. Trp53 Mutant Embryonic Fibroblasts (MEF's) contain innate immune stimulating endogenous dsRNA, from mtDNA that mimic PAMP's. The immune response, via RIG-1 like PRR, leads to expression of type 1 interferon (IFN) and proinflammatory cytokine genes. Further, Natural Killer cells also produce a multitude of cytokines that can promote or dampen an immune response. Wild-type p53 suppresses viral repeats and contributes to innate immunity by enhancing IFN-dependent antiviral activity independent of its function as a proapoptotic and tumor suppressor gene. 

Post-translationally modified P53, located in the cytoplasm, enhances the permeability of the mitochondrial outer membrane thus stimulating apoptosis. However, treating Trp53 mutant MEF's with DNA demethylating agent caused a huge increase in the level of transcripts encoding short interspersed nuclear elements and other species of noncoding RNAs that generated a strong type 1 IFN response. This did not occur in p53 wild-type MEF's. Thus it appears that another function of p53 is to silence repeats that can accidentally induce an immune response.

This has several implications for how we understand self versus non-self discrimination. When pathogen-associated features were quantified, specific repeats in the genome not only display PAMP's capable of stimulating PRRs but, in some instances, have seemingly maintained such features under selection. For organisms with a high degree of epigenetic regulation and chromosomal organization immuno-stimulatory repeats release a danger signal, such as repeats released after p53 mutations. Here, immune stimulation may act as back-up for the failure of other p53 functions such as apoptosis or senescence due to mutation. This supports the hypothesis that specific repeats gained favor by maintaining non-self PAMPs to act as sensors for loss of heterochromatin as an epigenetic checkpoint of quality control that avoids genome instability generally. 

When P53 mutates it begins to fail its restraint of viral suppression, this enables a 'viral mimicry' and aberrant immune reactions. These may promote survival of cells that can leverage immunity, promote angiogenesis and heightened proliferation of cancers, or other diseases under modified conditions for non-self tolerance. 

Evidence of Purposeful Evolution

Darwin's evolution challenged!

A recently published article in Nautre challenged evolution theory suggesting DNA repair was the more likely candidate driving evolutionary development than the environmental conditions thought to be the driver of natural selection. In some sense the two may be linked, but this study showed how epigenome-associated mutation bias reduced the occurrence of deleterious mutations, challenging the prevailing paradigm that mutation is a directionless force in evolution.

Quantitative assessment of DNA gain and loss through DNA double-strand break (DSB) repair processes suggests deletion-biased DSB repair causes ongoing genome shrinking in A. thaliana, whereas genome size in barley remained nearly constant.

Introduction of as little as 0.7% sequence divergence between Alu elements resulted in a significant reduction in recombination, which indicates even small degrees of sequence divergence reduce the efficiency of homology-directed DSB repair. Alu elements are the most abundant transposable elements (capable of shifting their positions) containing over one million copies dispersed throughout the human genome.

The emergence of recombination-activating genes (RAGs) in jawed vertebrates endowed adaptive immune cells with the ability to assemble a diverse set of antigen receptor genes. Innate Natural Killer (NK) cells are unable to express RAGs or RAG endonuclease activity during ontogeny. They exhibit a cell-intrinsic hyperresponsiveness, but a diminished capacity to survive following virus-driven proliferation, a reduced expression of DNA damage response mediators, and defects in the repair of DNA breaks. However, RAG expression in uncommitted hematopoietic progenitors and NK cell precursors marks functionally distinct subsets of NK cells in the periphery, demonstrating a novel role for RAG in the functional specialization of the NK cell lineage. 

The most active region of Human Chromosome 19 has a long history of recombinations that define the expression patterns of telomeric and centromeric proportions of Killer-cell immunoglobulin-like receptor (KIR) gene's encoding receptors. KIR's bind cells presenting MHC class 1 HLA haplotype combinations, that vary significantly across tissues in different population groups. Further, the deletion rate in Zinc Finger clusters (ZNF) located around 19q13.42, near KIR and C19MC between 51,012,739 and 55,620,741 are about twofold higher than the background deletion rate. 

The relationship between deletions and mutation may indeed play a direct role in rapidly evolving, innate immunity. This may just begin to explain the speed at which global populations can respond and survive pandemics caused by the likes of COVID-19. And, the '19' in its nomenclature may go beyond time to the very chromosome responsible for innate immune diversity.

Retroviral Defense And Mitochondrial Offense

Chromosomal DNA has played host to the long game of viral insertions that repeat and continue as a genetic and epigenetic symbiosis along its phosphate and pentose sugar backbone. But, the bacterial origin of mitochondria and its hosted DNA also promotes its offense. 

Research suggests that retrovirus insertions evolved from a type of transposon called a retrotransposon. The evolutionary time scales of inherited, endogenous retroviruses (ERV) and the appearance of the zinc finger gene that binds its unique sequences occur over same time scales of primate evolution. Additionaly the zinc-finger genes that inactivate transposable elements are commonly located on chromosome 19. The recurrence of independent ERV invasions can be countered by a reservoir of zinc-finger repressors that are continuously generated on copy number variant (CNV) formation hotspots.

One of the more intiguing aspects of prevalent CNV hotspots on chromosome 19 are their proximity to killer immunoglobulin receptor gene's (KIR's) and other critical gene's of the innate immune system.

Frequently occuring DNA breaks can cause genomic instability, which is a hallmark of cancer. These breaks are over represented at G4 DNA quadruplexes within, hominid-specific, SVA retrotransposons and generally occur in tumors with mutations in tumor suppressor genes, such as TP53. Cancer mutational burden is shaped by G4 DNA, replication stress and mitochondrial dysfunction, that in lung adenocarcinoma downlregulates SPATA18, a mitochondrial eating protein (MIEAP) that contributes to mitophagy. 

Genetic variations, in non-coding regions can control the activity of conserved protein-coding genes resulting in the establishment of species-specific transcriptional networks. A chromosome 19 zinc finger, ZNF558 evolved as a suppressor of LINE-1 transposons, but has since been co-opted to singly regulate SPATA18. These variations are evident from a panel of 409 human lymphoblastoid cell lines where the lengths of the ZNF558 variable number tandem repeats (VNTR) negatively correlated with its expression. 

Colon cancer cells with p53 deletion were used to analyze deregulated p53 target genes in HCT116 p53 null cells compared to HCT116-p53 +/+ cells. SPATA18 was the most upregulted gene in the differential expression providing further insight to p53 and mitophagy via SPATA18-MIEAP.

p53 response elements (p53RE) can be shaped by long terminal repeats from endogenous retroviruses, long interspersed nuclear repeats, and ALU repeats in humans and fuzzy tandem repeats in mice. Further, p53 pervasively binds to p53REs derived from retrotransposons or other mobile genetic elements and can suppress transcription of retroelements. The p53- mediated mechanisms conferring protection from retroelements is also conserved through evolution. Certainly, p53 has been shown to have other roles in DNA  context, such as playing an important role in replication restart and replication fork progression. The absence of these p53-dependent processes can lead to further genomic instability. 

The frequency of variable length, long or short nucleotide repeats and their locations within a gene may be key to the repression of DNA sequences that would otherwise cause genomic instability or protein expressions that would eat bacterial mitochondria or destroy its cell host. 

The complexity of variable length insertions is made evident when exhaustively analyzing a simple length 12 sequence for the potential frequency of each of its variable length repeats starting from a minumum variable length of 8.

Then, for TGTGGGCCCACA(12)

All possible internal variable length combinations from and including length 8:

TGTGGGCC(8)|GTGGGCCC(8)|TGTGGGCCC(9)|TGGGCCCA(8)|GTGGGCCCA(9)|TGTGGGCCCA(10|GGGCCCAC(8)|TGGGCCCAC(9)|GTGGGCCCAC(10)|TGTGGGCCCAC(11)|GGCCCACA(8)|GGGCCCACA(9)|TGGGCCCACA(10)|GTGGGCCCACA(11)|TGTGGGCCCACA(12)

For example, reviewing length (8) only:

TGTGGGCC (8) occurs 5 times

GTGGGCCC (8) occurs 8 times

TGGGCCCA (8) occurs 9 times

GGGCCCAC (8) occurs 8 times

GGCCCACA (8) occurs 5 times

Any repeat can be ranked based on its ocurrence within all possible combinations of a given sequence, known as the repeats' iScore rank. This illustrates a potential useful statistical ranking that, subject to biology may describe a repeats inherency to be more or less effective, in increments of the gene sequence. 

Repression of the most active sequences, especially in context of repeats may result in genetic variation.